Introduction
On 2 April 1982 Argentinean troops invaded the Falkland Islands thus prompting a war between Argentina and Great Britain.Within a few months Britain won the war and negotiations between the two countries with the United States (US) as a mediator followed. What elicited military action on behalf of Argentina who patiently and persistently had pursued peaceful means for over a century? Several possible explanations are offered including the regime's attempt to distract public opinion from domestic economic problems, the possibility of finding oil and historical claims. Moreover, how did this event colour future negotiations between the two states?
This report seeks to analyse the long-drawn out conflict over the Falkland Islands from a diplomatic perspective. First a brief history of the Falkland Islands will be outlined. Second, the report will focus on negotiations between Argentina and Britain prior to the war in 1982. Third, the reasons behind the military conflict will be highlighted. Fourth, negotiations after the war will be discussed.
The history of the Islands and their inhabitants
When the Islands were reported for the first time in 1690 by British Elizabethan navigators no permanent settlements were created. After 75 years the Falklands were rediscovered by France who gave them to King Charles III of Spain in 1767. Notably, at this time the British settled on the Eastern half of the islands. As a result, in 1770 the Falkland Islands were inhabited by both the British and Spanish. Following skirmishes and problems between these colonies, Britain withdrew in 1774 thus leaving the Islands to Spain until Argentina’s independence 1810.1Further, in 1820 Argentina officially announced the sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. In 1931 the US expelled all inhabitants of the Islands as a reaction to the seizure of an American ship. Throughout this period the British continued to view the Islands as theirs. Following Britain’s occupation of the Falkland islands in 1833 British citizens were sent to inhabit the Islands.In 1840, the Islands were officially declared to be a British colony.
The video clip above is told from a British perspective.
Negotiations prior the War
Numerous explanations have been offered to why Argentina chose to abandon diplomatic negotiations in favour of recovering the Falkland Islands militarily. Great Britain’s Prime Minister Thatcher claimed that Argentina had demonstrated a “warlike behavior” throughout most of the 20th century. Following this there was an assumption that the use of force had always been inextricably linked with Argentina’s approach. Contrariwise, the possibility to distinguish between the language and conduct of Argentina in 1982 and prior to this indicates that Britain’s claim is neither necessarily just nor true.2
Argentina has consistently asserted its rights to the Falkland Islands since British occupation, although the nature of these assertions has varied. Notwithstanding these variations, it remains clear that Argentina conducted peaceful diplomatic negotiations for over 150 years until the use of military force in 1982. Initially Argentina made official protests against British occupation; however, when Juan Péron came to power in 1946 these protests became more frequent and also took form before the United Nations. Guillermo Makin argues that there was never an indication that military action was even contemplated3. Further to this, Sir Henry Mack, the British ambassador accredited to Buenos Aires in 1952, adheres to this notion4. Furthermore, Makin argues that after the coup ousting Péron and until his return (1955-1973) no “relevant Argentinean political actor called for military action”5. Following Argentina’s increasingly intense engagement with the issue, Great Britain offered to take the disputed issue before the International Court of Justice which Argentina repeatedly rejected arguing that the Court was biased6. Moreover, during the rule of President Arturollia (1963-6) the disputed sovereignty claims over the Falkland Islands was pushed up the agenda of the United Nations General Assembly consistent with the contemporary decolonization era. This led to the adoption of resolution 2065 which prompted actual negotiations between Argentina and Great Britain. Hitherto, Argentina had advocated negotiations which had been largely ignored by Great Britain. It should be noted that subsequent years have been marked by negotiations as well as periods of deadlock. During President Ongania’s term in office Argentina’s long-term policy of negotiations was adhered to. This is reflected by the following statement made by his foreign minister, Costa Mendez (1966-9):
“The issue of the Malvinas is a substantial issue for my country as a portion of its territory is involved. However, faithful to its historical traditions, Argentina seeks a peaceful solution through negotiations”78
Moreover, Britain proposed a 30 year freeze on the question of sovereignty in 1966 followed by a popular referendum where the Islanders would choose between Argentina or Britain. In response to Argentina’s rejection, Britain announced the following year that she would consider ceding the islands under certain conditions ( including the will of the Islanders), however, strong objections both from the Islanders and Falkland lobbyists in Whitehall blocked this. Despite unsuccessful negotiations, Argentina sought to reopen negotiations in 1970. Although considerable progress was made, sovereignty was left out of the agenda. Argentina had committed to major concessions by facilitating air and sea services between herself and the Islands, however, in her view there were no reciprocal concession from Britain. In 1974 Britain suggested that the Falklands may be ceded to Argentina as a condominium (a territory shared between sovereign powers) without popular approval, however this was halted once again by strong popular and lobbyist opposition.9
In the end of 1979 a lease-back concept was discussed where Argentina would have formal sovereignty while administration would remain in British hands for a period of up to 50 years. Once more, the Falkland lobby put a stop to this. Thus, British foreign minister Ridley was severely constrained during the new rounds of negotiations in New York City in the beginning of 1981. Following this period up until the war, the tone of Argentina changed. The Islas Malvinas Institute demanded a stop to what they viewed as “endless negotiations” and rumours circulated in the Argentinean press that the government was considering military action. Further to this, Argentina’s ambassador accredited to London was called back for consultations with President Galtieri himself regarding the Falkland Islands. In addition, Foreign Minister Mendez made the most explicit demands yet for continuing negotiations. He requested negotiations to take place on a monthly basis between officials of the highest rank and to a pre-agreed agenda.10
It is also argued by many that the reason to the invasion was that the new regime in 1981, under the leadership of General Leopoldo Galtieri, wanted to distract the Argentinean people from the economic instability and political repression in the country, especially because of the Dirty War (1976-1983).11 Although the invasion of the islands appeared to improve the government’s popularity, it was only temporary. The Argentinean government appeared to have the wrong assumptions regarding what Britain’s response to the invasion would be; one which undermined Britain’s will to hold on to the islands.12
Reasons that led to the military clash
The US secretary of state Alexander Haig characterised the whole conflict as a lack of understanding where both parties misunderstood each other13. The Argentinean junta believed that the UK government was not united and not interested in protecting a small colony. Argentinian government believed that the UK would never attack the Argentinian troops. Haig was mistrusted by Junta for alleged bias and a support for the UK14. The UK and the USA tended to show themselves strong for the Soviet Union in the Cold War and to condemn any agrression. Argentina was a main supplier of grain to the Soviet Union and Soviet Union stated that it was the right of Argentina to fight against colonialism. Despite the fact that Soviet and Argentinian governments were antagonistic to each other there was a risk of closer cooperation between those governments or the risk of communists overthrowing the Argentinian junta15. This made the negotiation harder as the UK was not willing to show itself weak. There was a strong public support for natives in the Falkland Islands and they wanted to stay British. There was also a Falkland Islands' lobby in the British parlaiment lobbying for a solution to the conflict that would return the Islands back to Britain16. A British labour politician Michael Foot’s stated:
"The rights and circumstances of the people in the Falkland Islands must be uppermost in our minds. There is no question in the Falkland Islands of any colonial dependence or anything of the sort. It is a question of people who wish to be associated with this country and who have built their whole lives on the basis of association with this country. We have a moral duty, a political duty and every other kind of duty to ensure that is sustained"17.
The international community condemned Argentina's invasion, many states agreed to economic sanctions against Argentina and hoped for a peaceful withdrawal and a diplomatic solution. The United Nations called for withdrawal of all military forces in order for negotiations to be conducted, and as the UN was impartial, it acted as a mediator (through Alexander Haig).
However, there were difficulties in reconciling the differences between the two warring parties; flexibility in future negotiations was hinted although neither side changed their position on the fundamental principle of sovereignty. Although the international community agreeing with Britain helped maintain the domestic support for the Falklands, economic sanctions alone were not seen to be able to resolve the dispute. From Britain’s point of view there was a need for the threat of (superior) force if the Argentinean government did not withdraw peacefully. Britain had to show itself military capable to take back the islands, and only then could negotiations regarding concessions begin. As the islands were already invaded, there was not much time allowed for Britain to only use diplomacy, but rather to use it together with military action in self defence.18
It has to be added that at that time, there were rumours about the reserves of oil under the islands. Argentina was in an economic crisis and any new income would be certainly helpful to get Argentina out of crisis. Chris Hedges does not consider this motive to be vital as he argues that Argentina had own resources of oil, tried to develop nuclear power stations and the oil was not confirmed but there were rather more doubts about the finding of oil19.
The Falklands had not mattered too much to Britain in the post-colonial past. The British national survival was not directly threatened in 1982. Therefore, Britain needed an international support to start any kind of military reaction. Britain argued that its role was to ensure the democratic rights of the people would not be denied by Argentina’s demands. Many other governments were questioning why Britain was responding that way. The Security Council of the UN came to the conclusion that Argentina had to withdraw20.
Footage of the events surrounding the conflict.
SAS in the Falkland War
Anglo-Argentine Diplomacy After the Falklands/Malvinas War, 1983–1989
After the Falkland War, which lasted 74 days and ended with British defeated the Argentine troops and re-gaining its territory. Due to its failure in the war, Argentine military regime collapsed and in December, 1983 new, democratically elected government was established. However, the newly elected President Raul Alfonis maintained its claims over the islands, but was determined to solve the dispute in peaceful manner, rather than use force. Both governments agrees to restore complete diplomatic relations, influenced by the pressure of the USA, which played a key role in helping to reach an agreement. Despite the fact that Anglo- Argentine diplomatic activities were established, the negotiations failed, as both parties remained far apart21. After winning the War, Britain agreed to restore diplomatic relations with Argentine, but under the condition that the issue of the islands sovereignty will not be discussed under any circumstances. On the other hand, the Argentinian government has rejected Thatcher’s unwillingness to include the issue of sovereignty, claiming that proposed diplomatic relation will only be established if sovereignty was part of the package to be discussed at the negotiation table. In this period, bi-lateral diplomacy has been marked as failure.22
Parliamentary diplomatic delegations from both Great Britain and Argentina resumed talks in 1986, but Britain continued to insist that the issue of Falkland Islands sovereignty will not be a part of the discussion. Earlier in the year, an attack Taiwanese fishing vessel by Argentinian gunboat was interpreted as an act of manifestation for Argentinian claim to the naval protection zone. This led to the Britain decision unilaterally to declare a 150 nautical miles(proximately 275km) conservation zone, to prevent overfishing in the water surrounding the islands. The British action was condemned by the UN, as the conservation zone occupied the same territory of that of the naval protection zone. Another UN condemnation to Britain emerged after British rejection of Argentina's proposal to end hostility in return of the protection zone abolishment. Yet again, no agreement was reached and the two states fell in to deadlock.
It was not until 1989 when talks were resumed. This was due to the fact that new government was formed in Argentina, and the immediate interest of the newly elected president Carlos Menem and his new Foreign Minister , Dr. Domingo Cavalo to restore full diplomatic relation with Great Britain. The reason for this daring step was the acceptance that the previous Government's policies were not solving any dispute with Britain, and inevitably was limiting the possibility for Argentina to establish links with the Western economies.23 In the same year, the new British Foreign Secretary, John Major, met his counterpart, Dr Cavallo in the New York and then in Madrid few days later. The diplomatic delegation decided on sovereignty “umbrella” formula, to confirm that nothing that was to transpire in their discussions should be interpreted as changing, supporting or denying either side’s position on terms of sovereignty or territorial or maritime jurisdiction over the Falkland Islands, the Dependencies and the surrounding area.24Full diplomatic relations between Argentina and Great Britain were restored 1990 when they agreed to disagree on the issue of the Falkland islands.
Recent developments
Recently, President Cristina Fernández de Kirchner's urged Britain to stop her oil exploration in the waters surrounding the Falklands. The British government, however, has declared it has no intention to stop which it justifies by its sovereignty over the Falklands. Notwithstanding these verbal confrontations, Argentina’s President has reaffirmed her intentions to resolve the conflict by diplomatic means.25. A British exploration company Desire Petroleum launched a drilling project to find oil on the Islands but this step was regarded negatively by Argentina and other South American leaders who support Argentina's sovereignty claims over the Falkland Islands26.
Conclusion
This report has clearly demonstrated the strong opposing positions held by Argentina and Britain. Initially, Britain did not engage with Argentina’s attempts at negotiations over the sovereignty of the Falkland Islands, however, as these attempts become progressively asserted Britain began to take part in negotiations. Furthermore, these negotiations both prior and after the war in 1982 have alternated between modest progress and complete deadlock. To date no significant progress has occurred, let alone a successful solution.
